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It is often believed that understand that some primates may have used bones and stones as tools but. With the coming of the Homo Sapiens, tool making and tool using began in the true sense. Only then tools, as we know them, emerged. The human being is an animal that only uses tools but also constantly improves upon them it is this tool making ability that has brought us to the present stage. Had it stopped at some stages, then perhaps the world would never have been what it is today. The archeologists have traced the early ancestors of human beings like the Sinanthropus (Peking Man) and others, Traces of primitive human beings like the discovered in Germany (Neanderthal Man) in (Java Man) and in Rhodesia (Rhodesia Man) But the discovery of the remains of peeking Man was unique in the sense that he was the first- human being to be found living in a complete domestic environment. He is supposed to have lived about 500,000 years ago .

Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic period begins somewhere between 500,000 and 250,000 years ago in the Old Stone Age human beings lived entirely on hunting, fishing and gathering. The tools they fashioned from stone for this purpose were rudimentary in character. These tools only enabled them to live off nature and not to invest in it. Their requirements were met through trapping, hunting, plucking or digging. They had no control over nature. Rather they were dependent on it. In cultural evolution this period is described as a stage of savagery as depicated by Morgan, a British anthropologist Roughly-chipped flint served a variety of purposes from killing a prey to removing the skin, to dogging up roots and tubers Here too one finds gradual improvements in the tool making ability from just chipping off coarse segments by colliding one stone against another, some early human begins also learnt hoe to chip off neater flakes by blows with a billet of wood.

The new Stone Age or the Neolithic period began some 10,000 to 12,000b years ago. In this age human begins were able to increase, and thus control to some extent the supply of food. They did this by cultivating cereals and breeding animals. The cultural characters of this period correspond roughly with what Morgan called the Barbaric Age. It is during this period that pottery, the technique of spinning wool, flax and cotton into threads came onto use. Finally fashioned stone axes sharpened by grinding also made their appearance at this time. The impacts of all this period signify the great transition that the phrase “Neolithic Revolution” is justifiably employed to signify the great transition that followed. From archeological remains of this period (found at many villages on the banks of Denube River) one finds a large number of flint arrow heads, bone harpoons, and bone dart heads, Hoe blades, sickles and hard- mills have also been found in large numbers.

The next revolution in tool making came with the bronze age about 5,000 years ago that is , around 3000 B.c. This period supported an urban population, skilled craftsmen, traders, priests, writers and clerks. Writing emerged in history around this time. As copper and bronzed were now the principal metals used for making tools and weapons, this period is described as the Bronze Age To secure bronze tools, the community encouraged specialized like miners, smelters and smiths. After all, to make a bronze axe one must know more science than one needed in the stone Ages By 3000 B.C. not only was the technique of mixing copper and tin to make bronze Known in India, Mesopotamia and Greece, but the wheel also had been discovered. The application of the wheel (with copper nails) revolutionized transportation and two – wheeled and four –wheeled carts were being commonly used by this time for a Varity of purposes.

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There were several emerging challenges during the independent India. The policies that British colonial rule perused activated the process of politician’s castes and strengthened their self-awareness. The congress movement for independence and its leadership kept on fighting against such policies on the basis of nationalist secular ideology. Soon after freedom was achieved, the social framework of these policies was envolved in the constituent Assembly and adopted in the Constitution of India. Constitution of India recognizes only the civic status of a person in all matters to do with law and state. For the historically deprived depressed sections of society., Such as the depressed castes, tribes and minorities it offers special provisions in addition to their civic rights. The electrons politicians has led the caste associations, which formerly served only social , chant able or educational purposes, to jump into the political arena. Vote banks on caste lines have now appeared. The political mobilization of caste has led to new forms of caste structure. The involving of democratically elected bodies in decision making process and distribution of economic resources opportunists made caste organization conscious of the need to enter into electrical arena to gain power and resources. It influenced their response in three broad stages.

1. It reinforced taste indentions, increasing caste rivalries. The example are, Maher and Maratha rivalry in Maharashtra, kamma and Reddy antagonism in Andhra Pradesh, Lingtiyat Vokkaliga rivalry in Karnataka, Rajput- Bhumihar rivalry in Bihar etc. In south India, most such rivalries also had a touch of anti- Brahmanism.
2. These castes India, most such rivalries with sharpened sense of identify had soon to give way to caste alliances because of the demands of caste politic. This led to the process of fusion among castes. The objectives was mainly to enlarge the political base to gain power and access to resources Consequently , many caste associations emerged through fusions of castes, such as the the Kshtriya Mahasabha in Gujarat , Vannyar Kula Sangham in Tamil Nadu, and the Ahirs, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput (AJGAR) association in Utter Pradesh which was mooted through not fully exploited. The effort was to unite the present castes into a single unit for electoral politics. Several political parties on the basis of caste following. The role of caste into an interest groups or protest groups. Most modern societies in the world have a place for such groups mostly the voluntary associations. The association towards fusion of caste in order to realize political and economic objectives leads to new interpretation of members by birth which widens its meaning and weakens its traditional virtual significance. This would be clear from the fact that caste association differs from such agencies in the nature of its membership. But the attempt towards fusion of castes in order to realize political and economic objectives leads to new interpretation of membership by birth which widens its meaning and weakens its traditional actual significance. This would be clear from the fact that caste composition of such associations is highly heterogeneous. The focus clearly shift from principles of birth and kinship to social economic and cultural deprivations which unite otherwise desperate castes together. The scheduled caste movements had the character both of protest and reform movements. The emphasis on reform originated in the first phase of national movement when the depressed castes as we mentioned earlier attempted sanskritisation by shedding their supposedly impure ways of life and attempted adopting beliefs and life ways of the twice-born castes in order to claim superior caste status. The Nadars in Tamilnadu claimed claimed Kshatriya caste status and organized their caste association in 1910 known as the Nadar Mahajan Sangham. The Chamars and Nonyas in Uttar Pradesh similarly claimed the status of Chauhan Kshatriyas. Many such caste of sanskritistion were witnessed both before and after independence. The backward class movement prior to independence had middle caste base. The Lingayat Education Fund Association and Vokkaliga Sangii in Mysore. Yadava and Kurmi ahasabhas in U.P. and the Maratha movement in Maharashtra are a few examples. Several other such movements emerged after the end of olonial rule. These two were both reform and protest movements.